Short answer: A dugout that held water in November can be cracked mud by March, and the crop goes with it. Dry-season farming in Ghana works when you know your water budget before you plant, choose an irrigation method that matches it, and pick crops that earn their keep on the water you can really deliver. Check the permits for any abstraction, and keep the flock's drinking water first in the queue. Our business is day-old chicks, and we sell no irrigation kit, seed or water systems, so this is planning knowledge for a poultry keeper who also grows food.
Key takeaways
- Work out how many litres your source holds at the end of the rains, then divide by the days you need to water to get your real budget.
- Drip or basin irrigation gets more crop from each litre than watering the whole plot by bucket or open furrow.
- Mulch the beds with dry residues and water early in the morning or in the evening to cut evaporation.
- Keep poultry drinking water and the crop irrigation source separate, and keep manure and runoff away from the dugout.
- Check the permit rules with the Water Resources Commission and your district assembly before you pump from a river or dam.
The dry season is a water problem first
A dugout that held water in November can be cracked mud by March, and the vegetables planted on its edge die with it. Farmers in the north know this well. They also know that the sun is rarely the thing that kills the crop. The water runs out, the irrigation stops, and the plants wilt in the afternoon heat with the soil still damp underneath, because the roots have nothing left to drink from.
So begin the dry season with a water question, not a seed question. How much water will your source hold at the end of the rains? How many days do you need to water, and how many litres does the crop need each day? Once you have those three answers, the choice of crop, the irrigation method and the size of the plot follow from them, and most of the guesswork goes away.
Farmers who skip this step tend to plant too much. They fill the plot in the first weeks of the cool season, see the water level drop faster than they expected, and then choose which beds to let die. Planting a smaller area well is the better result.
Know your dry season: north, middle belt and south
Ghana is not one dry season. The north has a long one, the middle belt has a shorter one, and the south has a short dry spell that is interrupted by a second rainy period. Your dates decide how long the water must last, and the harmattan adds its own problem. It is dry, dusty and cool at night in the north, so the crop loses water through the leaves even when the air feels fresh in the morning.
| Zone | Dry period (typical) | What it means for water | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Northern and Upper regions | Roughly November to April | Longest gap with no useful rain; dugouts and rivers fall steadily | Harmattan dust adds to leaf loss in December to February |
| Middle belt | Roughly December to March | Shorter, but sources can still fall sharply by February | Plan for the first rains to arrive late in some years |
| Coastal and southern | Roughly December to February, with the August break | Shorter dry spell; water usually lasts with planning | The August break can dry shallow beds quickly |
These are typical windows. The start and end of the dry season move from year to year, so keep a simple rain record on your farm and look at it before you plan the next season. The rainfall figures from your nearest weather station are a better guide than any table, including this one.
In the north, the harmattan dust sits on leaves, and it reduces light and traps heat. Rinse leaves gently in the early morning if you have the water to spare, and cover the young seedlings with light netting or straw where the wind is strong.
Water sources and what each one can carry
Most dry-season farms draw on one of four sources: a dugout or small dam, a stream or river, a borehole or hand-dug well, or stored rainwater in tanks. Each has its own reliability and its own risks, and many farms use two of them to cover the bad weeks.
| Source | Strengths | Weak points | Check before you rely on it |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dugout or small dam | Holds a large volume; cheap to use by gravity or pump | Shrinks fast in the hot months; shared with livestock and people | Depth at the end of the rains, the bottom mud, and how close the animals drink |
| Stream or river | Flows through the dry season in some places | Often falls to a trickle; may need a permit to pump | Minimum flow in March and April, and the rules for upstream users |
| Borehole or hand well | Steady yield in many areas; cleaner if well sited | Yield can drop in dry years; pumping costs power or fuel | Yield test, water quality and the depth of the water table |
| Rainwater tanks | Clean for drinking and light use; no pumping if gravity-fed | Small volume; roofs and gutters can carry dirt | Tank size against the water you will use each week |
Measure your dugout once at the end of the rains and again every fortnight, using a stick with marks on it, and write the level down. The rate of fall is the most useful number you will have. A dugout that loses a few centimetres a fortnight will last longer than one that loses a few centimetres a week, and you can plan around both.
Shallow dugouts lose a lot to evaporation in the hot months. A deeper, narrower pit holds water better than a wide shallow one of the same volume, so think about shape when you dig or deepen a source.
Permits and local rules: check before you pump
Water is a public resource in Ghana, and the rules for using it are not the same as the rules for owning a plot. Before you pump from a stream, a river or a large dam, ask whether a permit applies. The Water Resources Commission regulates the use of surface water and groundwater, and it can tell you what a particular abstraction requires. Check current terms, because rules and fees change and each site can be different.
Large irrigation schemes are managed differently. The Ghana Irrigation Development Authority runs the public schemes, and the scheme rules set who gets water, when, and how much. Public schemes in the Upper East, such as those at Tono and Vea, have their own allocation and water-user rules. If you plan to join a scheme, ask the scheme office for the written rules before you take a plot.
The district assembly and the local chief or landowner matter as well. A dugout on family land may be shared among several households, and the rules for watering, fishing and watering livestock can be older than any written permit. Agree them in person, in the open, before the dry season starts, and write them down. Many water disputes start with a rule that nobody said out loud.
- Confirm with the Water Resources Commission whether a permit covers your abstraction.
- Ask the scheme office, if you are in one, for the written allocation rules.
- Agree a watering rota with every family or group that shares the source.
- Keep copies of any permit, letter or agreement with the farm records.
Work out the water budget with a worked sum
A water budget is one sum: the water you have, minus the water you lose, divided by the water the crop needs each day. Start with the volume in the source at the end of the rains. Subtract the expected loss to evaporation and seepage, and be honest about it. Then divide what remains by the number of irrigation days you need.
Take a simple example. Suppose a dugout holds 60,000 litres at the start of the dry season, and you expect to lose a third of that to evaporation and seepage by the end of the cool months. That leaves about 40,000 litres for irrigation. Suppose you plan 500 tomato plants that each take about 2 litres a day in the hottest weeks, and you need to water for 90 days. That is 1,000 litres a day, or 90,000 litres over the season. The dugout falls short by more than half, so you either cut the plot to around 200 plants, or you find a second source, or you change the crop.
The figures are a working example, not a standard. Plants vary, and the daily need changes with the stage of growth and the weather. Measure the water you actually use for a week with a bucket and a tally, and use that measurement to replace the example figures in your own plan. A rough sum with real numbers beats a precise sum with guessed ones.
| Step | What to write down | Example figure |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Water in the source | Volume at the end of the rains | 60,000 litres |
| 2. Losses | Evaporation and seepage over the season | About one third, or 20,000 litres |
| 3. Available water | Step 1 minus step 2 | 40,000 litres |
| 4. Daily crop need | Litres per plant or per square metre, multiplied by the number of plants or area | 1,000 litres a day |
| 5. Days covered | Step 3 divided by step 4 | 40 days, against 90 planned |
In the example the plot is too big for the source. That is useful to know in October, when you can still change the plan, and expensive to learn in February, when you cannot.
Irrigation methods: bucket, furrow or drip
How you put the water on the ground matters as much as how much you have. Three methods cover most small dry-season plots in Ghana, and each one gives a different return on every litre.
Bucket and watering can irrigation needs no equipment and suits a few beds close to the source. It is labour-heavy and wastes water on paths, so it works best for seedlings and small blocks of leafy crops. Watering can rose heads give a gentler spread than a bucket tipped at the root, and the water goes where you aim it.
Furrow irrigation runs water along channels between the rows. It needs less labour than buckets once the channels are dug, but it wets the whole soil profile on every run, and the water wastes itself on the far end of the plot. Level the ground well, so the water does not pool at one end. Furrows suit crops planted in rows, such as maize, onion and some vegetables, if you have a steady supply.
Drip irrigation delivers water slowly to the root zone of each plant, through lines with small emitters. It uses the least water per crop, keeps leaves dry, and cuts weed growth between the rows. It needs a filter, a pump or a raised tank for pressure, and a yearly check of the emitters. For a limited dry-season source, drip often gives the best return, because it makes each litre count.
| Method | Water use | Labour | Suits |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bucket or can | High; wastes water on paths | High | Seedlings and small leafy beds |
| Furrow | Medium to high; lost at the far end | Medium | Row crops such as onion and maize |
| Drip | Low per crop | Low once set up | Tomato, pepper, okra and other fruiting crops |
Whatever you choose, water at the root and not the leaves in the hot months. Wet leaves in the midday sun can scorch, and wet leaves at night invite fungal disease.
Mulch and the time of day you water
Bare soil in the dry season loses its moisture quickly. The surface dries, the water rises from the layers below through capillary action, and the water is lost to the air. A layer of mulch breaks that path. Dry grass, maize stover, rice straw or chopped crop residue spread 5 to 10 centimetres deep over the bed can cut the loss a great deal, and it also keeps the soil cooler for the roots.
Keep the mulch away from the stems of young plants, or they can rot in the damp. Rake it back for a day or two when you transplant, then spread it again once the seedlings are established. Termites and rats can move in on a thick mulch, so check the beds and keep the mulch loose rather than packed.
Timing matters too. Water in the early morning or in the late evening. Water at midday evaporates in minutes, and the leaves can scorch in the sun. Morning watering gives the plant water before the day's heat, and evening watering lets the soil hold the water overnight. Avoid the middle of the day unless the plant is wilting badly.
- Water the beds before dawn or in the last hour of the afternoon.
- Check the soil with a finger or stick to see how deep the moisture reaches.
- Apply mulch after the seedlings are established, and keep it off the stems.
- Look at the wilting pattern. Wilting in the afternoon and recovery by morning is normal in heat; wilting that does not recover is a sign of root stress or pests.
Crops that earn their water in the dry season
Some crops give more back for each litre than others. Onion, pepper and tomato under irrigation are the classic dry-season crops in the north and the middle belt, because they sell well in the months when rain-fed produce is scarce. Okra and leafy greens are quicker, and they bring cash in before the bigger crops are ready.
Onion needs steady water but not waterlogging, and it is harvested as the tops fall over. Once the bulbs are dry and cured, they store longer than most vegetables, which lets you hold them for a better price. Keep the irrigation even, and stop watering as the tops begin to die back, or the bulbs split.
Pepper and tomato use a lot of water in the flowering and fruiting stages. Drip or careful basin watering keeps the crop going and reduces the risk of blossom drop. Our article on growing tomato in Ghana covers the pests that come with a dry-season crop, and the whitefly and thrips problems are as common in the open field as under cover.
In the drier north, crops that tolerate low water are a better fit for rain-fed or residual-moisture plots. Cowpea and sorghum are both sensible choices, and our guides to growing cowpea and growing sorghum and millet cover the planting and harvest details. Groundnut is another option where the soil drains well.
Leafy greens and okra make a good first crop for a small plot with limited water. Their quick cycle gives cash early, and their water need is spread across the weeks. Lettuce bolts in the heat, so choose a heat-tolerant green for the hottest months.
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Water quality, salt and the dugout you share with livestock
Water that is safe for a cow may not be safe for a salad. A dugout that the cattle walk into, the goats drink from and the poultry wash their feet in will carry faecal bacteria, and some of those bacteria stay alive on leaves for days. If the vegetables are eaten raw, the water you use on them needs a higher standard than the water the animals use.
Test the water for faecal indicator bacteria, such as E. coli, at least once in the dry season, and again if the source changes colour or level sharply. Ask the district environmental health office or a private laboratory how to take a sample and what to request. Test for salt as well, since water that is high in dissolved salts builds up in the soil and slowly stunts the crop.
Keep the animals off the edge of the source where you draw water. A simple fenced drinking point, with a separate trough, keeps the mud and dung out of the intake. Put the pump or the intake pipe well away from the drinking spot, and at a higher point than the place where runoff collects.
Our poultry side has the same concerns. Our guide to water quality for poultry in Ghana covers what to test for in drinking water for birds, and the principles carry across to crop irrigation. If the dugout also supplies birds, read water supply and storage before you connect the two.
The flock drinks first
A flock needs water every day, and in the dry season it needs more of it, not less. The heat drives birds to drink, and a broiler house in the middle of the day can use far more water than it does on a cool morning. A shortage that lasts a single afternoon can hurt the birds, so the water for the flock should be secured before any water goes onto the crop.
Work out the flock's daily need separately, with the same tally you used for the crop. Count the birds, multiply by the litres a bird drinks on a hot day, and add a margin for cleaning and emergencies. Keep that amount in a tank or a raised drum, filled from a source you have tested for the birds.
Keep the flock's water on its own line. Our article on broiler water management sets out the drinker checks, and the water tank cleaning guide explains how to keep the tanks sanitary through the dry months, when algae and dust build up quickly.
If you run short, reduce the crop before you reduce the flock. A lost field of okra can be replanted next season. A flock that goes thirsty in April may not recover.
If a bad dry season leaves you short of birds, the day-old chicks page lists what we hatch and when, and a WhatsApp message to +233 24 915 1503 will reach us about timing. Plan the restock for the start of the rains, when the brooder has cooler nights and the new chicks have fresh water and green cover to work with.
Manure and compost when the rains have stopped
Dry-season beds need organic matter as much as the wet-season beds do, and many farms fall behind on it because compost needs moisture to work. A heap that dries out stops breaking down, and the litter sits there until the rains return. The answer is to plan the compost while there is still water, and to keep the heap moist without drowning it.
Poultry litter from the flock is a good source. Stack it in a covered heap, turn it every week or two, and wet it lightly when it feels dry in the fist. Dried litter, kept dry and under cover, can be applied to the beds once it has aged for a few weeks and no longer smells of ammonia. The full process and the rules are in our article on using poultry manure as fertiliser.
Farms that also keep cattle can match the feed and the water plans, and our guide to feeding cattle through the dry season sets out the stored feed side. Apply the compost to the bed a few weeks before planting, not to the seedlings, and water it in. Mix it into the top layer, then cover with mulch. Keep the heap well away from the dugout, the intake and the drinking water, because the runoff from a wet heap carries nutrients and bacteria into the source.
Labour, water queues and the night-time risks
In a dry season, water becomes a queue. Neighbours, herders and farmers all want the same source, and the arguments usually start at the point where the pump is closest to someone's beds. The fairest arrangements are the ones written down before anyone is short of water.
Plan the labour as well as the litres. Watering by bucket takes hours each day, and a farm that waters by hand needs at least one person who does nothing else. Count the hours and say who does them. A drip system saves labour but needs a daily check of the filter and the pressure, and someone must own that job.
Night watering has its own risks. Snakes, theft and poor visibility all make it hazardous, and a torch and a second person are better than working alone in the dark. Keep the pump and the fuel secure, and mark the valves so a stranger cannot change the setting by accident.
- Agree a watering rota with the other users of the source.
- Write down who does the daily checks and who covers when they are away.
- Keep fuel and pumps locked away from the plot entrance.
- Carry a torch and avoid working alone after dark.
Checklist for the dry season
Start this list in September or early October, so you have time to change the plan before the water starts to fall.
- Measure the source at the end of the rains and record the level.
- Measure the level again every fortnight and write it on a board by the source.
- Calculate the water budget for the crop and the flock separately.
- Check permits and the scheme or community rules for the source.
- Choose the irrigation method that matches the budget, and fix the filters before the first watering.
- Test the water for faecal bacteria and salt, and keep the results.
- Fence the drinking point and keep the animals off the intake.
- Plant only the area the water can cover through to the end of the season.
- Spread mulch once the seedlings are established.
- Agree the watering rota and the labour plan with everyone who shares the source.
- Check the flock's water tank and the drinkers before the harmattan begins.
Review the budget in February. If the source is falling faster than the plan allows, cut the area now, and keep the flock on full water.
Questions farmers ask
When should I plan my dry-season crops in Ghana?
Start the planning in September or early October, when the source is still full and the rains have not yet stopped. The water budget and the permit checks take time, and they decide the crop, the area and the irrigation method. Planting dates follow from the water budget, not the other way round.
How do I know if my dugout will last the dry season?
Measure the water level at the end of the rains, then again every two weeks, and note the rate of fall. Estimate the losses to evaporation and seepage, and compare what remains with the water the crop needs each day. If the answer is too small, reduce the planted area or find a second source before you plant.
Do I need a permit to pump water for irrigation?
It depends on the source and the scale. Ask the Water Resources Commission whether your abstraction needs a permit, and ask the scheme office or your district assembly about local rules. Check current terms, since requirements can change and may differ between sites.
Is drip irrigation worth the cost for a small plot?
It often is when water is the limit. Drip puts the water at the root of each plant, so it uses less water per crop than buckets or furrows, and it keeps the leaves dry. Compare the cost of the kit with the water and labour it saves, using current quotes from local suppliers, before you decide.
Can I water vegetables with water from a dugout I share with cattle?
Only after testing. Animals and their dung add faecal bacteria, and the risk is higher for vegetables eaten raw. Test the water for E. coli, fence the drinking point, and move the intake away from the animals. If the test is poor, use a cleaner source for the crops that are eaten raw.
What should I plant first if my water is short?
Choose crops that give a return for each litre. Leafy greens and okra return cash quickly, and cowpea and sorghum tolerate low water in the north. Onion, pepper and tomato pay well under drip or careful basin watering. Plant the smallest area that the budget covers and add a second crop only when the first is secure.
How much water does a poultry flock need in the dry season?
More than in the wet season, especially in the heat of the day. Work out the daily litres for your flock on a hot day, add a margin, and keep that amount in a tank or raised drum before any water goes on the crop. Check your drinkers daily and clean the tanks regularly, since algae and dust build up quickly.
